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Abstract Burmese long-tailed macaques ( Macaca fascicularis aurea) are one of a limited number of wild animal species to use stone tools, with their tool use focused on pounding shelled marine invertebrates foraged from intertidal habitats. These monkeys exhibit two main styles of tool use: axe hammering of oysters, and pound hammering of unattached encased foods. In this study, we examined macroscopic use-wear patterns on a sample of 60 wild macaque stone tools from Piak Nam Yai Island, Thailand, that had been collected following behavioural observation, in order to (i) quantify the wear patterns in terms of the types and distribution of use-damage on the stones, and (ii) develop a Use-Action Index (UAI) to differentiate axe hammers from pound hammers by wear patterns alone.

We used the intensity of crushing damage on differing surface zones of the stones, as well as stone weight, to produce a UAI that had 92% concordance when compared to how the stones had been used by macaques, as observed independently prior to collection. Our study is the first to demonstrate that quantitative archaeological use-wear techniques can accurately reconstruct the behavioural histories of non-human primate stone tools. Introduction The developing field of primate archaeology – aims to identify and analyse artefacts used and accumulated by primates from outside the human lineage. Primate archaeology benefits palaeoanthropological research by providing comparative data for the evolution of hominin technology and landscape use, in addition to reconstructing the behavioural history of wild primates through the recovery and recording of tools used by these animals –. Stone tools are particularly important as their durability increases the likelihood that they will survive in the archaeological record.

The only primates currently known to use stone tools in the wild are western chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes verus), bearded and yellow-breasted capuchin monkeys ( Sapajus libidinosus and S. Xanthosternos), and Burmese long-tailed macaques ( Macaca fascicularis aurea) –. Maxwell Sv Software Free Download on this page. Although widely separated both geographically and phylogenetically in the ape, New World and Old World monkey lineages respectively, all these species use stones to pound open encased foods. Other wild species that use stone tools, including digger wasps ( Ammophila and Sphex sp.), sea otters ( Enhydra lutis) and Egyptian vultures ( Neophron percnopterus), also use these tools as pounding implements. Use-wear analyses can play an important role in characterising stone tools used by non-human primates, as these tools are not deliberately modified by the animals and use-damage is a primary means of distinguishing natural from utilised stones. Previous studies have reported pits on tool surfaces that result from attrition during repeated pounding impacts,,,,, although the process of pit formation has not been quantified and other types of use-wear are not systematically described,.

Pits found on Middle Pleistocene artefacts from Israel have been attributed to hominin nut-cracking activities, and damaged pounding tools have been described from the African Early Stone Age and in experimental contexts. To our knowledge there are no systematic published data on the types and surface distribution of use-wear on non-human primate tools, despite the potential value of such data as a means of (i) identifying tools and their use-history in the absence of direct observation, and (ii) interpreting the action, precision, and grips used by wild tool-using primates. Here, we report the first quantitative use-wear analysis of stone pounding tools used by wild Burmese long-tailed macaques ( Macaca fascicularis aurea), the only known stone tool using wild Old World monkeys. Burmese long-tailed macaques use stone tools as foraging aids to process marine invertebrates and plant parts in coastal areas and mangroves in Thailand and Myanmar,,,. Their use of stones is only known to occur at a few sites, and where these macaques use stones as tools the behaviour is customary, following the definition of customary as ‘enacted regularly or predictably by all appropriate members of a group or population’.